TWO APES IN THE BUSH ARE WORTH MORE THAN A BIRD ON A PLATE A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE BUSH MEAT CRISIS
TWO APES IN THE BUSH ARE WORTH MORE THAN A BIRD ON A PLATE
A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE BUSH MEAT CRISIS
I. INTRODUCTION
The Bush Meat Crisis Big Picture
Bush is a type of forest, and meat is meat. Combining these words gives bushmeat meaning flesh of the wild animals living in an African bush. Recent studies demonstrate that those animals together with their meat are in crisis. According to POSTnote of the UK Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 1-3,4 million tones of wild animals meat is sold in Africa annually, including meat of such endangered species as gorilla (and other great apes), African elephant, porcupine and certain species of antelopes. One might ask so what African peoples hunted animals in the bush for ages, so why are we so concerned with this problem now Perhaps they should just continue their traditional living and species will survive just as they survived centuries before But the problem now is much broader than simply hunting for meat. Godall asserts that the bushmeat crisis is the most significant and immediate threat to wildlife population in Africa today.
Several factors make modern crisis troublesome
1. Unsustainability meaning overhunting endangered species resulting in impossibility of normal recruitment
2. Industrial equipment products of civilization including new types of hunting weapons, vehicles and massive construction of roads makes animals especially defenseless
3. Profitability of bush-hunting providing immediate gains but causing long-term negative effects
4. Growth of population needing protein products
5. Lack of environmental regulation and awareness between African peoples
6. Disease transmission (including AIDS and Ebola) through meat of hunted animals.
Consideration of the abovementioned factors turns the bush meat crisis into a complex problem reflecting major problems faced by Equatorial Africa at the eve of the XXI century. This paper will demonstrate the crisis as a complex problem Part II shall give an extended definition of bush meat and bush meat crisis, Part III shall concern aspects of the crisis (hunting for meat, wildlife trade, exotic pet trade, logging etc), Part IV shall propose solutions for the defined problems, Part V shall contain conclusions from the paper.
II. WHAT IS BUSH MEAT
A. Bush Meat Affordable Food Source-historically used sustainably.
1. Locals Livelihoods And SustenanceSubsistence
Indeed, indigenous people living in the African bush supported made their living out of hunting for ages. For those living in tropical forest area hunting became a primary source of proteins, since massive farming and cattle breeding is impossible on woody territories (like Congo basin). Thus, the people of the bush depend on hunted proteins, which make 60-80 of meat eaten in the Congo basin area. Obviously, not all of the inhabitants of the area make their living out of hunting, however, not all of the meat of the hunted animals is eaten by those people in need for vital proteins. Existing hunting rates in Africa currently six times exceed sustainable levels. Meet consumption in tropical Africa increases 3 annually, while the number of wild animals is becoming increasingly marginal. The amount of bush meat regularly sold and eaten in Africa has been estimated to 1 million tons annually in 2000, while in 2005 the esteems suggested 3,4 million tons, including 28 million bay dunkers and 7 million red colobus monkeys hunted in the Congo Basin yearly.
Wildlife is an available and virtually free source of meat for the local rural communities. Statistics show that rural areas consume a greater part of the hunted wild animals meat, while in the urban areas wild meat is effectively replaced with chicken meat which is cheaper than wild meat in the cities. However, countries like Congo do not demonstrate a tendency towards urbanization, as population grows 4 annually with urban population growing only 1,5-2 annually. This suggests that wild meat consumption shall continue to increase 2-4 annually. Consequently, hunting is likely to become the most immediate threat to wildlife in the Congo basin area in the next 5-15 years. Considering that alternative sources of animal protein are hardly available for the local inhabitants, a chain reaction of hunting and extinction should be expected when more hunting shall result in extinction of species and this extinction shall result in more competitive and active hunting. This is likely to cause a set of problems. Central among those problems shall be extinction of endangered species and food shortage in the poor rural communities of Central Africa.
III. BUSH MEAT CRISIS
A. Wildlife Trade.
1. Hunted Species.
Bush hunters most often do not target particular species. No matter where meat comes from, whether from widespread species like duikers or pigs or endangered ones like gorillas. Hunting preferences are determined by easiness and profitability of hunting. Studies conducted in 1990-s show that most preferable are medium-size species including 9 of antelopes, 18 of primates and 3 rodents as well as birds, snakes, lizards. 60 of the hunted species are hunted unsustainably.
Different species are hunted for different purposes. The most widespread species are hunted for meat to support the living of the natives. Great apes are hard to find and hunt, so their meat is now viewed as a delicious and expensive elite product hunted with intention to further sell them. Elephants are hunted for both meat and ivory. Some species, like crocodiles are hunted for valuable skin used for production of exotic products and ornamental objects. Such commercial hunting is increasing from year to year due to increasing interest to bushmeat products (including exotic meat, skin and ornamental objects) on the global markets.
2. Food.
According to esteems, 60-80 of natural proteins in the Congo basin and West Africa are gained from bush meat. There is a notable difference in bush meat consumption among various social groups. Rural communities gain most of their animal proteins from bush meat while in the urban areas bush meat provides only about 4 of consumed animal proteins. Bush meat is popular among the poor due to availability and comparative cheapness. Those poor people are interested in survival, so their hunting is unselective. An alternative source of proteins river and sea fish, however, access to fish resources is limited in the inland, except for this, fish resources are limited just as bush meat resources are.
Recent case studies in West Africa suggest a different picture of bush meat consumption. Certain sorts of bush meat (like the arms of gorillas) became an elite expensive product, and the richest part of the society prefers bush meat to meat of household animals. In the case of those elite food products, animals are hunted not for home market only, but for foreign markets as well.
3. Exotic Leathers and Furs.
Except for bushmeat local economies benefit from by-products like skins and fur of the hunted animals. In contrast to bushmeat hunting, often performed for survival, hunting wild animals for such by-products is almost exclusively of commercial character. Certain species are valuable skins only, including carnivores, pitons crocodiles, alligators and other reptiles. Furs and skins are used for local production of household articles (shoes, bags, etc.) and souvenirs for supplement of local income as well as for export to the foreign markets for production of more sophisticated goods.
4. Ornamental Objects.
Trading ornamental objects manufactured from bushmeat by-products is becoming increasingly profitable in Africa. Except for products manufactured out of skin and leather, this includes staffed animals and parts of their bodies, decorations and religious objects made using parts of animal bodies and household items. Most popular of all are ivory and rhino horns with their intrinsic value for people ready to buy them for ever higher prices. According to esteems, the price of ivory increased twofold between 1970 and 1990 both thanks to increasing demand and decreasing population of elephants in Zaire, Congo Tanzania and South Africa.
5. Exotic Pet Trade.
Exotic pets from the bush are sold as valuable gifts and status symbols. Animals (especially apes) are usually caught as babies after their parents were killed for meat. The price of a single ape baby on the black market increases almost twofold between 1995 and 1999. At that, most of the caught babies die without adequate housing and veterinary care soon after being caught.
6. Traditional Medicine.
Traditional beliefs including belief in traditional medicine are still strong in Central Africa. For example, in some rural areas of Tanzania chimpanzee bones are believed to increase health and vitality. Although not being a primary target of bushmeat hunters, traditional medicine commodity trade increases the general profitability of bushmeat hunting.
7. Biomedical Research And Teaching.
Thanks to their relation to human species, apes, especially chimpanzees, are attractive objects for biomedical research and experimenting. 1970s were a period when chimpanzees export for medical purposes boomed in Africa to the countries like USA, Japan and Europe. This practice ceases in early 1980s, however, apes are still used as experimental objects in local research institutions. Animal bodies are used for educational purposes as well, including stuffed animals production. Recent scientific developments suggest usage of animals hunted as bushmeat as transplantation donors and material for genetic research.
8. Stocking Of Game Hunting Farms.
Contrasting usual bushmeat hunting for survival and commercial purposes, game hunting is a developing business for the rich, which can be both legal and illegal. Legal game-hunting and safari-games are often viewed as a partial solution of the bushmeat crisis. Thus, Zimbabwe recently introduced a so-called CAMPFIRE program under which certain communal areas are provided for controlled game-hunting and the hunters are encouraged to use cameras but not weapons. Local people benefit directly and indirectly from such programs, as they increase employment and provide them with legally and sustainably hunted bushmeat.
Another pole of the problem is illegal game hunting conducted for entertainment of either local rural inhabitants, or richer urban classes. This type of hunting remains largely uncontrolled and unsustainable affecting rarest and most endangered species like gorillas and chimpanzees.
9. Zoos And Safari Parks.
Keeping animals in zoos and safari parks enables preservation and reproduction of endangered species in case performed legally. However, there exists a problem of illegal trapping endangered species for export to the zoos worldwide, especially affecting young apes. Certain problems are related to legal Safari parks as well, including overhunting and occasional killing of rare species.
B. Access Becoming More Available.
1. Logging
The vulnerability of bush fauna for hunting is ever increasing as a result of of human penetration into the bush, including mining, road construction and logging. In the latter case illegal bushmeat hunting is indirectly sponsored by the logging companies. Developing infrastructure (including road construction and cleaning forest areas for construction sites) fragments the bush into separate portions making bushmeat hunting more available and additionally open the previously wild areas for new settlers. The hired workers performing hard physical labor are in greater need for protein-containing products than ordinary local inhabitants and their salaries enable buying hunting weapons while their equipment and transport greatly facilitates hunting.
In Congo logging has been identified as the greatest long-term threat to endangered species due to overlap of logging concessions. Existing logging practices proved to be unsustainable both in terms of volumes and methods. The situation becomes even more dramatic considering public socio-economic interests, including dependence of state and local budgets on timber revenues.
2. Commercial Hunting Ventures.
Traditionally, bushmeat hunting was a source of survival for the local communities, however, economic development of African states including development of international trade resulted in a shift towards commercialization of bushmeat hunting, dramatically affecting bush wildlife regeneration. According to esteems by Robinson and Bennet, hunting pressure on the wildlife in Africa is stronger than in any other region. Over 15 animals are hunted annually per one square kilometer of African tropical forest (compared to 8 in South America and 6 in South-East Asia), while the total number of animals killed by commercial hunters rates to 19 million in Central Africa and 18 million in West Africa (compared to 17 million in Brazilian Amazon and 6 million in other Amazon countries and South-East Asia).
Establishment of commercial ventures for bushmeat hunting as well as utilization of bushmeat by logging and mining enterprises, equipped the hunters with new technologies like guns, wire snares, battery-powered lights, and motorized transport. Workers hired among local people bring these new technologies to indigenous tribes. In combination with improved infrastructure new technologies increase the easiness and profitability of bushmeat hunting and deplete hunting risks to lower levels.
Better equipment and organization combined with lower risks of bushmeat hunting lead to expansion of wildlife crisis to regions and species not previously endangered, especially large species like gorillas, lions and elephants. Additionally, commercial activities are interrelated in their damage to the wildlife, when, for example, animals hunted with better equipment are transported by better roads to the markets which are now closer to the bush thanks to cleaning of large forest areas. The problem is likely to increase in future since weak economies of Central Africa countries are unable to provide their growing population with sufficient employment, thus directly encouraging illegal commercial bushmeat hunting.
3. Loss of Habitat
Human penetration into the wild areas would be a threat for animal life even without uncontrolled hunting since it results in drastic loss of habitat for bush species. Accodring to conceptual model of biodiversity loss constructed by Wood, Stedward-Edwards and Mann (2000), the loss of habitat may take forms of habitat reduction, habitat fragmentation and habitat degradation. The habitat is reduced by logging and cleaning of forestry areas for human commercial activities (including agricultural expansion). The remaining portions of the habitat are further fragmented by infrastructure like roads or electric power lines separating animal groups from sources of food and water as well as from each other reducing animal reproduction opportunities. The remaining portions of the bush are subjected to degradation as a result of general ecosystem decline including vanishing of flora species, water pollution and air pollution.
In a short-term prospective the animals may survive habitat loss by migration to unaffected regions, however, their future survival depends on availability of such virgin areas not yet occupied by resident population of the same species or similar species occupying the same ecological niche. However, in the long-term perspective, ruination of habitat implacably reduces animal population since the bush is able to support only a limited number of animals.
Except for direct habitat loss, habitat modification is likely to affect primates population. Such habitat modification begins with small-scale disturbances by local inhabitants. For example, in the regions around Tana River in Kenya the locals cut rare trees for canoes affecting population of certain apes species. Such unseen changes in the ecological system structure are likely to increase with further growth of population and degradation of forests. The long-term influences of such minor disturbances remain largely unknown, however, according to recent case studies, they are likely to gather like a snowball and result in unpredictable consequences.
4. Loss of locals livelihoods and sustenancesubsistence.
Historically, local livelihoods in the tropical forests of Africa depended on bushmeet as an indispensable source of food. However, as observed by Short, human-wildlife conflict is growing and with crop raiding and hunting of livestock taking a large toll on the livelihoods of many poor people. And it should be noted that wildlife conservation through protected area systems continues to be resisted by poor people who are denied access and use rights in such areas.
Most households in West and Central Africa are concentrated in rural areas and their dependency on bushmeat is extremely high. This creates an important link between biodiversity conservation and sustainable management of natural resources on the one hand and traditional livelihood conservation on the other hand. Current overpopulation creates an endless circle in which more people hunt more animals for bushmeat unsustainably resulting in decrease of animals population resulting in even greater competition between hunters and more active hunting resulting in further extinction of wildlife. This vicious circle is further aggravated by lack of awareness between rural people in Africa and their rapacious approach towards nature. Being deprived of opportunity to lead their traditional way of life the poor men eagerly hire themselves to work for logging, construction or hunting corporations and contribute to ultimate ruination of local wildlife and, consequently, of their own livelihoods.
In their attempt to combat the problem African governments introduce national programs like the abovementioned CAMPFIRE program in Zimbabwe or Tropical forestry Action Plan and Forest Policy Dialogue in Cameroon aimed to integrate local bush communities into sustainable agricultural production. Such programs do have notable effect, however, being delayed by institutional weakness of public sector in African states and general implementation blunders, they are still far from completion.
C. The Spread Of Diseases.
Fragmentation of the forestry areas and concentration of species on small territories has yet another long-term negative effect. Smaller and denser animal population is a favorable environment for active diseases transmission, especially considering food shortage. Smaller living area brings apes closer to people facilitating virus penetration from one species to another. Apes are especially vulnerable to flu and other seasonal diseases, while apes revenge with fevers (including Ebola) and AIDS. A case study performed in 2002 in Cameroon revealed that over 20 of pet monkeys were infected with SIV which is likely to penetrate to human blood through bites and infected meat.
Human-animal contact does not only contribute to transfer of existing diseases but brings along new diseases as well. The so called zoonoses are presently human diseases originating from animals. Viruses and bacteria which could be relatively save for an ape can mutate into extremely dangerous forms in human organism with HIV being the most famous example of such mutation.
D. Human Overpopulation
Overpopulation is a relative term meaning that a particular territory is no longer able to provide sufficient nutrition for the increased population in case existing economy methods are preserved. Human population in Africa is on rapid increase thanks to better healthcare and existing traditionally large families. In such states as Cameroon the population doubled in recent two decades, especially in the rural areas. Unsustainable and uncontrolled hunting as well as decrease of forestry areas leads to shortage of bushmeat food supplies.
According to Wilkie et al., the normal population density which a bush is able to support in case traditional hunting is continued is 1 man per 1 square kilometer. However, current population density of the Congo basin (according to Wilkie) makes 99 men per 1 square kilometer or 5-20 persons per square kilometer according to Bushmeat A Wildlife Crisis in West and Central Africa and Around the World. In West Africa the population density makes 27-78 persons per square kilometer.
African governments attempt to resolve the problem of overpopulation by teaching the locals to cultivate corns and perform sustainable management of natural resources, however, these attempts are not always successful, mostly due to lack of organizational pattern, ineffective management and human ignorance. The most notable problem here is mosaic distribution of farmer lands resulting in further fragmentation of the bush and grave human influence on its ecosystem.
E. Huge problem of extreme poverty
The problem of poverty is the most important social cause of the bushmeat crisis and the main driving factor of the bushmeat trade. Poverty and destruction of environmental systems are strongly interrelated and interdependent through the system of complex links. Abject poverty results both from nutrition shortage and loss of human habitat. In this case the fate of the poorest people in Central Africa is hardly different from the fate of the apes as they both suffer from civilization penetrating into the wild.
Due to the mentioned interrelation the problem has to be resolved by a set of complex measures considering that better environment would mean better living conditions for the poor. However, this problem is aggravated by high human mobility, instable political environment and conflicts of interest related to illegal commercial use of natural resources. Additionally, recent experience shows that where people are dependent on bushmeat they are likely to resolve the problem of poverty by massive hunting, but not by application of new economic methods This makes the implementation of strategies aimed on poverty reduction complicated if at all possible.
IV. SOLUTIONS TO PONDER
A. Policy And Legislation
Bushmeat problem is a subject of both international and national legislation and policy. On the international plane bush wildlife fells under protection of Convention on Biological Diversity, signed, inter alia by Botswana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Cte dIvoire, Mozambique, Nigeria, Zimbabwe and other nations of Central and West Africa. Article 6 of the mentioned Convention provides an obligation to (a) Develop national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or programmes which shall reflect, inter alia, the measures set out in this Convention relevant to the Contracting Party concerned and (b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies.
The earlier Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife Flora and Fauna (CITES) established restrictions for such trade aimed on wildlife conservation, including obligation of the parties to establish inner legal restrictions for such trade (articles 3-6 of the Convention). The parties to the convention are all states of West and Central Africa. In 2000 the Central African parties to the CITES (including Cameroon, Gabon, CAR, Congo and Equatorial Guinea) established a sub-regional working group for management of protected wildlife areas and identified particular steps in the sphere of harmonization of legislation, enforcement of national wildlife protection policies, informational support of wildlife protection campaigns and sustainable natural resources management. In 2001, the parties set up measurable standards to monitor their progress. Currently the program is being implemented by the states-parties, including following legislative measures taken by the states
Republic of Congo. The Congolese law N48 .83 of 21 April 1983 determines guidelines for wildlife exploitation, granting of licenses and permissions for wildlife exploitations and wildlife protection, as well as sets up the list of offences against wildlife and corresponding sanctions.
Following the 2000 Conference Congo adopted a new Forestry Code, which notably expanded the powers of the national Forest Administration, as well as aggravated responsibility for forestry legislation violations. As of 2003 the Congolese parliament actively worked to pass new laws on forestry and wildlife, paying special attention to development of communications and informational strategies.
Republic of Cameroon. The new Cameroonian Forestry Code divided the forests of Cameroon into permanent protected forests and permanent forests in which human activities are permitted. The code additionally regulates use of hunting weapons and methods, providing decentralized forest management and protection exercised by the local communities.
Cameroonian government actively promotes European-sponsored wildlife protection programs (ECOFAC, APFT, PCGBC, FOFARI, CARPE, PRGIE, SNV, GEF, TREES). Most notably, The National Forestry Action Plan provided opportunities for broad reformation of national policies, increased official awareness and foreign assistance.
The Republic of Gabon. Gabon applies model similar to the one of Cameroon, including adoption of a new Forestry Code which contains classification of wild species living on the Gabonese territory, conditions of hunting and organization of synergetic events in the hunting areas, establishment of cooperation between rural hunters and urban meat traders and conditions for obtaining hunting permits and licenses.
The Republic of Equatorial Guinea. Bellos report gives special notice that Equatorial Guinea strives to implement regional wildlife protection policies beyond formal dedication, and, as one of the initiators of 2000 meeting, Equatorial Guinea started implementing policies similar to those developed in 2000, in its legislation already in the 1990s. This includes legislation on wildlife conservation, sustainable use of natural resources and forestry areas fragmentation and protection. National Forestry Development Fund exists in Equatorial Guinea since 1994, National Parks have been created by a decree of 1997, and protected forestry areas exist since 2000.
The Central Africa Republic. The state demonstrated its dedication to wildlife protection since 1984 when the Order N84-045 of 27 July 1984 set forth the basic principles of hunting activities. The law amended the provisions of Order N74-72 of 28 June 1974 concerning bushmeat trade. The modified legislation provides obligatory licensing of hunting activities, as well as reporting both by bushmeat hunters and bushmeat traders. Recent ECOFAC project offered further amendments, however, these have not been yet effectively implemented.
Currently, illegal bushmeat hunting and trading became a matter of concern far beyond African states. European governments implement policies aimed to prevent illegal bushmeat import into the European Union. In 2002 the European Parliament unanimously passed a resolution condemning bushmeat trade. The World Bank and the European Union cooperate with African States in their efforts to prevent illegal bushmeat hunting. Such cooperation includes scientific and technical support like creation of working groups working to increase public awareness of the problem both in Africa and worldwide.
B. Land Use Considerations.
The abovementioned policies can be viewed as a first step towards development of effective natural resources management and wildlife protection policy. Currently African nations implemented only some fire-extinguishing measures like certification and control over bushmeat hunting and prohibition of illegal bushmeat trade. Only Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea currently introduced long-term legislative measures aimed on creation of sustainable land use and protection areas like national parks and protected zones (like Equatorial Guinea) or development of non-exhausting and nature-friendly framing and logging (like Cameroon). It should thus be expected that other African nations would copy Cameroonian and Guinean experience, including establishment of forestry administrations and classification of lands.
Cameroon offers a prospection for further development of lands management in Africa. Alternatives to Slash and Burn (ASL) program is currently applied in Southern Cameroon aimed to study the impact of primitive exhaustive methods of farming on the quality of land and classify agricultural lands based on the program findings. Application of similar programs in other African countries could be effective for implementation of more effective and less exhaustive farming methods which would enable solving nutrition problems and thus reduce the dependency of the locals on bushmeat.
C. Awareness And Education.
As shown above, the bushmeat crisis is largely a result of poor awareness of rural African people of the problem and expected consequences. Thus, promotion of education and awareness is likely to be effective in combating bushmeat crisis. As long as the bushmeat crisis is a complex problem, it requires complex informational and educational campaigning in all fields from population control to propaganda against illegal hunting.
Education has been identified as one of the primary means to combat illegal bushmeat trade by the Food and Agricultural Organization in 2002. Among existing notable educational programs are
- CERCOPAN project (Nigeria) is designed for students. The project includes educational rally, traditional dance festival, banner competition
- Bushmeat Crisis Discussion Group (Cameroon). The purpose of the project is to encourage wildlife conservation by educating the future generations of the Africans and to increase general awareness of the bushmeat crisis in the African society through establishment of wildlife clubs in secondary schools, organization of field tours and other awareness activities.
- Forests Partners International (Liberia). The program is implemented by a group of officers educating people in areas around Sapo National Park. Attention is drawn to sustainable use of wildlife resources and explanation of threats caused by uncontrolled hunting.
Several educational programs are performed by major western zoos in cooperation with the African zoos. Such projects are designed both for African and Western audience. The latter is becoming increasingly aware of the bushmeat crisis, including through global youth cooperation projects. Thus, the Jane Goodall Institute supports the Roots and Shoots youth project dealing, among other issues with the bushmeat crisis in the programs like Tchimpounga Youth Campaign.
D. Public Private Initiatives.
Educational projects are designed for long-term perspective to make African societies involved into solution of the bushmeat problem both on public and private planes. The public level includes national governments, local communities and commercial companies, the private level includes NGOs and individuals.
The basic task of the states is to pass effective wildlife protection legislation including delimitation of forest areas and defining protected areas and areas of free hunting, hiring personnel for monitoring and prevention of illegal bushmeat hunting, licensing hunting and sale of hunting ammunition, prevention of commercial trade with illegal bushmeat, research for alternative sources of proteins, care of sustainable logging, development of nature-friendly infrastructure projects, promotion of nation-wide research of wildlife state and protection prospective, promotion of environmental education and awareness.
The initiatives of local communities may include sustainable use of land, promotion of local nature protection systems, environmental education on local level, development of alternative sources of living for the local communities, combating customary and religious practices of hunting endangered species, monitoring and prevention of bushmeat trade within the community.
On the part of the private companies one should expect teaching and training employees to apply nature protection practices, contribution to sustainable nature resources management (for example, planting trees by the logging companies), monitoring and prevention of bushmeat hunting in the areas of their interest and by their employees, ensuring that the companys equipment and transport is not applied for bushmeat hunting.
Non-government organizations and individuals can contribute to resolution of the bushmeat crisis by adhering to governmental regulations and policies on biodiversity conservation, non-government research and monitoring, collaborating with the government and local communities in solving the crisis, promotion of general awareness and knowledge, research and suggestion og alternative protein sources, arranging teaching and training within local communities. The additional task for the NGOs shall be arranging of informational exchange between nations facing the bushmeat crisis. The first step towards such general non-government cooperation is the alliance formed by several international NGOs establishing a working group on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Currently the alliance concentrates on enforcement of existing regulations, however, they may actively contribute to development of new regulations and policies in the future.
E. Food Security And Livelihoods.
The ultimate resolution of the bushmeat crisis is possible only in case its primary cause is eliminated, namely the critical dependency of the local livelihoods on animal proteins acquired from bushmeat (see Sections I and II of the present paper). Neither of the above measures is likely to be effective without resolution of this underlying problem. Thus, the African governments striving to eliminate the bushmeat problem will have to offer alternative methods of agricultural production and alternative sources of animal proteins.
Apparently, the overcoming of the food crisis would require the governments and the publicity to recognize two basic facts 1. The bushmeat is an unreliable, unstable and unsecure source of nutrition 2. There are biological limits of the environmental system, including limits of food which can be provided by a particular territory and limits of population which is able to maintain its living on a particular territory.
As has been mentioned previously in this paper, alternative sources of nutrition do exist, including agricultural crops, fish and household animals. The best solution for the African nations would be complex development of their agricultural sectors in order to ensure availability of replaceable protein sources. Another solution is overcoming isolation of separated rural communities and arranging cooperation between regions and internationally. This would enable fast delivery of food in case of short-term lack of nutrition products in a particular community (for example in the case of draught) thus increasing their food supply security and discouraging the locals from viewing the bush as a source of cheap and available meat.
V. CONCLUSIONS
It can be asserted that the first and the most important step towards resolution of the bushmeat crisis is already made. African nations and the entire mankind has acknowledged the problem and the need to combat it. Notable measures are already taken, including working out of international and national legal framework and development of long-term anti-crisis policies. Nations like Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea proved to be successful in enforcement of legislative measures directed against the crisis. However, the performed actions enabled to mitigate the immediate threats only. Solid performance in combating the bushmeat crisis has yet to be achieved.
In the midterm perspective, anti-crisis measures have to be targeted at resolution of general nutrition problems in Central Africa. Finding alternative sustainable source of protein and providing food supplies security for the rural livelihoods would enable to eliminate the underlying cause of the crisis.
The long-term perspective should be directed at achievement of two purposes 1. Sustainable nature resources management, including logging and commercial hunting 2. education of the African people in issues concerning wildlife protection and sustainable natural resources management in general and threats associated with bushmeat in particular. With consideration of this prospective, an ultimate resolution of the bushmeat crisis appears to be a matter of two or three decades.
A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE BUSH MEAT CRISIS
I. INTRODUCTION
The Bush Meat Crisis Big Picture
Bush is a type of forest, and meat is meat. Combining these words gives bushmeat meaning flesh of the wild animals living in an African bush. Recent studies demonstrate that those animals together with their meat are in crisis. According to POSTnote of the UK Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 1-3,4 million tones of wild animals meat is sold in Africa annually, including meat of such endangered species as gorilla (and other great apes), African elephant, porcupine and certain species of antelopes. One might ask so what African peoples hunted animals in the bush for ages, so why are we so concerned with this problem now Perhaps they should just continue their traditional living and species will survive just as they survived centuries before But the problem now is much broader than simply hunting for meat. Godall asserts that the bushmeat crisis is the most significant and immediate threat to wildlife population in Africa today.
Several factors make modern crisis troublesome
1. Unsustainability meaning overhunting endangered species resulting in impossibility of normal recruitment
2. Industrial equipment products of civilization including new types of hunting weapons, vehicles and massive construction of roads makes animals especially defenseless
3. Profitability of bush-hunting providing immediate gains but causing long-term negative effects
4. Growth of population needing protein products
5. Lack of environmental regulation and awareness between African peoples
6. Disease transmission (including AIDS and Ebola) through meat of hunted animals.
Consideration of the abovementioned factors turns the bush meat crisis into a complex problem reflecting major problems faced by Equatorial Africa at the eve of the XXI century. This paper will demonstrate the crisis as a complex problem Part II shall give an extended definition of bush meat and bush meat crisis, Part III shall concern aspects of the crisis (hunting for meat, wildlife trade, exotic pet trade, logging etc), Part IV shall propose solutions for the defined problems, Part V shall contain conclusions from the paper.
II. WHAT IS BUSH MEAT
A. Bush Meat Affordable Food Source-historically used sustainably.
1. Locals Livelihoods And SustenanceSubsistence
Indeed, indigenous people living in the African bush supported made their living out of hunting for ages. For those living in tropical forest area hunting became a primary source of proteins, since massive farming and cattle breeding is impossible on woody territories (like Congo basin). Thus, the people of the bush depend on hunted proteins, which make 60-80 of meat eaten in the Congo basin area. Obviously, not all of the inhabitants of the area make their living out of hunting, however, not all of the meat of the hunted animals is eaten by those people in need for vital proteins. Existing hunting rates in Africa currently six times exceed sustainable levels. Meet consumption in tropical Africa increases 3 annually, while the number of wild animals is becoming increasingly marginal. The amount of bush meat regularly sold and eaten in Africa has been estimated to 1 million tons annually in 2000, while in 2005 the esteems suggested 3,4 million tons, including 28 million bay dunkers and 7 million red colobus monkeys hunted in the Congo Basin yearly.
Wildlife is an available and virtually free source of meat for the local rural communities. Statistics show that rural areas consume a greater part of the hunted wild animals meat, while in the urban areas wild meat is effectively replaced with chicken meat which is cheaper than wild meat in the cities. However, countries like Congo do not demonstrate a tendency towards urbanization, as population grows 4 annually with urban population growing only 1,5-2 annually. This suggests that wild meat consumption shall continue to increase 2-4 annually. Consequently, hunting is likely to become the most immediate threat to wildlife in the Congo basin area in the next 5-15 years. Considering that alternative sources of animal protein are hardly available for the local inhabitants, a chain reaction of hunting and extinction should be expected when more hunting shall result in extinction of species and this extinction shall result in more competitive and active hunting. This is likely to cause a set of problems. Central among those problems shall be extinction of endangered species and food shortage in the poor rural communities of Central Africa.
III. BUSH MEAT CRISIS
A. Wildlife Trade.
1. Hunted Species.
Bush hunters most often do not target particular species. No matter where meat comes from, whether from widespread species like duikers or pigs or endangered ones like gorillas. Hunting preferences are determined by easiness and profitability of hunting. Studies conducted in 1990-s show that most preferable are medium-size species including 9 of antelopes, 18 of primates and 3 rodents as well as birds, snakes, lizards. 60 of the hunted species are hunted unsustainably.
Different species are hunted for different purposes. The most widespread species are hunted for meat to support the living of the natives. Great apes are hard to find and hunt, so their meat is now viewed as a delicious and expensive elite product hunted with intention to further sell them. Elephants are hunted for both meat and ivory. Some species, like crocodiles are hunted for valuable skin used for production of exotic products and ornamental objects. Such commercial hunting is increasing from year to year due to increasing interest to bushmeat products (including exotic meat, skin and ornamental objects) on the global markets.
2. Food.
According to esteems, 60-80 of natural proteins in the Congo basin and West Africa are gained from bush meat. There is a notable difference in bush meat consumption among various social groups. Rural communities gain most of their animal proteins from bush meat while in the urban areas bush meat provides only about 4 of consumed animal proteins. Bush meat is popular among the poor due to availability and comparative cheapness. Those poor people are interested in survival, so their hunting is unselective. An alternative source of proteins river and sea fish, however, access to fish resources is limited in the inland, except for this, fish resources are limited just as bush meat resources are.
Recent case studies in West Africa suggest a different picture of bush meat consumption. Certain sorts of bush meat (like the arms of gorillas) became an elite expensive product, and the richest part of the society prefers bush meat to meat of household animals. In the case of those elite food products, animals are hunted not for home market only, but for foreign markets as well.
3. Exotic Leathers and Furs.
Except for bushmeat local economies benefit from by-products like skins and fur of the hunted animals. In contrast to bushmeat hunting, often performed for survival, hunting wild animals for such by-products is almost exclusively of commercial character. Certain species are valuable skins only, including carnivores, pitons crocodiles, alligators and other reptiles. Furs and skins are used for local production of household articles (shoes, bags, etc.) and souvenirs for supplement of local income as well as for export to the foreign markets for production of more sophisticated goods.
4. Ornamental Objects.
Trading ornamental objects manufactured from bushmeat by-products is becoming increasingly profitable in Africa. Except for products manufactured out of skin and leather, this includes staffed animals and parts of their bodies, decorations and religious objects made using parts of animal bodies and household items. Most popular of all are ivory and rhino horns with their intrinsic value for people ready to buy them for ever higher prices. According to esteems, the price of ivory increased twofold between 1970 and 1990 both thanks to increasing demand and decreasing population of elephants in Zaire, Congo Tanzania and South Africa.
5. Exotic Pet Trade.
Exotic pets from the bush are sold as valuable gifts and status symbols. Animals (especially apes) are usually caught as babies after their parents were killed for meat. The price of a single ape baby on the black market increases almost twofold between 1995 and 1999. At that, most of the caught babies die without adequate housing and veterinary care soon after being caught.
6. Traditional Medicine.
Traditional beliefs including belief in traditional medicine are still strong in Central Africa. For example, in some rural areas of Tanzania chimpanzee bones are believed to increase health and vitality. Although not being a primary target of bushmeat hunters, traditional medicine commodity trade increases the general profitability of bushmeat hunting.
7. Biomedical Research And Teaching.
Thanks to their relation to human species, apes, especially chimpanzees, are attractive objects for biomedical research and experimenting. 1970s were a period when chimpanzees export for medical purposes boomed in Africa to the countries like USA, Japan and Europe. This practice ceases in early 1980s, however, apes are still used as experimental objects in local research institutions. Animal bodies are used for educational purposes as well, including stuffed animals production. Recent scientific developments suggest usage of animals hunted as bushmeat as transplantation donors and material for genetic research.
8. Stocking Of Game Hunting Farms.
Contrasting usual bushmeat hunting for survival and commercial purposes, game hunting is a developing business for the rich, which can be both legal and illegal. Legal game-hunting and safari-games are often viewed as a partial solution of the bushmeat crisis. Thus, Zimbabwe recently introduced a so-called CAMPFIRE program under which certain communal areas are provided for controlled game-hunting and the hunters are encouraged to use cameras but not weapons. Local people benefit directly and indirectly from such programs, as they increase employment and provide them with legally and sustainably hunted bushmeat.
Another pole of the problem is illegal game hunting conducted for entertainment of either local rural inhabitants, or richer urban classes. This type of hunting remains largely uncontrolled and unsustainable affecting rarest and most endangered species like gorillas and chimpanzees.
9. Zoos And Safari Parks.
Keeping animals in zoos and safari parks enables preservation and reproduction of endangered species in case performed legally. However, there exists a problem of illegal trapping endangered species for export to the zoos worldwide, especially affecting young apes. Certain problems are related to legal Safari parks as well, including overhunting and occasional killing of rare species.
B. Access Becoming More Available.
1. Logging
The vulnerability of bush fauna for hunting is ever increasing as a result of of human penetration into the bush, including mining, road construction and logging. In the latter case illegal bushmeat hunting is indirectly sponsored by the logging companies. Developing infrastructure (including road construction and cleaning forest areas for construction sites) fragments the bush into separate portions making bushmeat hunting more available and additionally open the previously wild areas for new settlers. The hired workers performing hard physical labor are in greater need for protein-containing products than ordinary local inhabitants and their salaries enable buying hunting weapons while their equipment and transport greatly facilitates hunting.
In Congo logging has been identified as the greatest long-term threat to endangered species due to overlap of logging concessions. Existing logging practices proved to be unsustainable both in terms of volumes and methods. The situation becomes even more dramatic considering public socio-economic interests, including dependence of state and local budgets on timber revenues.
2. Commercial Hunting Ventures.
Traditionally, bushmeat hunting was a source of survival for the local communities, however, economic development of African states including development of international trade resulted in a shift towards commercialization of bushmeat hunting, dramatically affecting bush wildlife regeneration. According to esteems by Robinson and Bennet, hunting pressure on the wildlife in Africa is stronger than in any other region. Over 15 animals are hunted annually per one square kilometer of African tropical forest (compared to 8 in South America and 6 in South-East Asia), while the total number of animals killed by commercial hunters rates to 19 million in Central Africa and 18 million in West Africa (compared to 17 million in Brazilian Amazon and 6 million in other Amazon countries and South-East Asia).
Establishment of commercial ventures for bushmeat hunting as well as utilization of bushmeat by logging and mining enterprises, equipped the hunters with new technologies like guns, wire snares, battery-powered lights, and motorized transport. Workers hired among local people bring these new technologies to indigenous tribes. In combination with improved infrastructure new technologies increase the easiness and profitability of bushmeat hunting and deplete hunting risks to lower levels.
Better equipment and organization combined with lower risks of bushmeat hunting lead to expansion of wildlife crisis to regions and species not previously endangered, especially large species like gorillas, lions and elephants. Additionally, commercial activities are interrelated in their damage to the wildlife, when, for example, animals hunted with better equipment are transported by better roads to the markets which are now closer to the bush thanks to cleaning of large forest areas. The problem is likely to increase in future since weak economies of Central Africa countries are unable to provide their growing population with sufficient employment, thus directly encouraging illegal commercial bushmeat hunting.
3. Loss of Habitat
Human penetration into the wild areas would be a threat for animal life even without uncontrolled hunting since it results in drastic loss of habitat for bush species. Accodring to conceptual model of biodiversity loss constructed by Wood, Stedward-Edwards and Mann (2000), the loss of habitat may take forms of habitat reduction, habitat fragmentation and habitat degradation. The habitat is reduced by logging and cleaning of forestry areas for human commercial activities (including agricultural expansion). The remaining portions of the habitat are further fragmented by infrastructure like roads or electric power lines separating animal groups from sources of food and water as well as from each other reducing animal reproduction opportunities. The remaining portions of the bush are subjected to degradation as a result of general ecosystem decline including vanishing of flora species, water pollution and air pollution.
In a short-term prospective the animals may survive habitat loss by migration to unaffected regions, however, their future survival depends on availability of such virgin areas not yet occupied by resident population of the same species or similar species occupying the same ecological niche. However, in the long-term perspective, ruination of habitat implacably reduces animal population since the bush is able to support only a limited number of animals.
Except for direct habitat loss, habitat modification is likely to affect primates population. Such habitat modification begins with small-scale disturbances by local inhabitants. For example, in the regions around Tana River in Kenya the locals cut rare trees for canoes affecting population of certain apes species. Such unseen changes in the ecological system structure are likely to increase with further growth of population and degradation of forests. The long-term influences of such minor disturbances remain largely unknown, however, according to recent case studies, they are likely to gather like a snowball and result in unpredictable consequences.
4. Loss of locals livelihoods and sustenancesubsistence.
Historically, local livelihoods in the tropical forests of Africa depended on bushmeet as an indispensable source of food. However, as observed by Short, human-wildlife conflict is growing and with crop raiding and hunting of livestock taking a large toll on the livelihoods of many poor people. And it should be noted that wildlife conservation through protected area systems continues to be resisted by poor people who are denied access and use rights in such areas.
Most households in West and Central Africa are concentrated in rural areas and their dependency on bushmeat is extremely high. This creates an important link between biodiversity conservation and sustainable management of natural resources on the one hand and traditional livelihood conservation on the other hand. Current overpopulation creates an endless circle in which more people hunt more animals for bushmeat unsustainably resulting in decrease of animals population resulting in even greater competition between hunters and more active hunting resulting in further extinction of wildlife. This vicious circle is further aggravated by lack of awareness between rural people in Africa and their rapacious approach towards nature. Being deprived of opportunity to lead their traditional way of life the poor men eagerly hire themselves to work for logging, construction or hunting corporations and contribute to ultimate ruination of local wildlife and, consequently, of their own livelihoods.
In their attempt to combat the problem African governments introduce national programs like the abovementioned CAMPFIRE program in Zimbabwe or Tropical forestry Action Plan and Forest Policy Dialogue in Cameroon aimed to integrate local bush communities into sustainable agricultural production. Such programs do have notable effect, however, being delayed by institutional weakness of public sector in African states and general implementation blunders, they are still far from completion.
C. The Spread Of Diseases.
Fragmentation of the forestry areas and concentration of species on small territories has yet another long-term negative effect. Smaller and denser animal population is a favorable environment for active diseases transmission, especially considering food shortage. Smaller living area brings apes closer to people facilitating virus penetration from one species to another. Apes are especially vulnerable to flu and other seasonal diseases, while apes revenge with fevers (including Ebola) and AIDS. A case study performed in 2002 in Cameroon revealed that over 20 of pet monkeys were infected with SIV which is likely to penetrate to human blood through bites and infected meat.
Human-animal contact does not only contribute to transfer of existing diseases but brings along new diseases as well. The so called zoonoses are presently human diseases originating from animals. Viruses and bacteria which could be relatively save for an ape can mutate into extremely dangerous forms in human organism with HIV being the most famous example of such mutation.
D. Human Overpopulation
Overpopulation is a relative term meaning that a particular territory is no longer able to provide sufficient nutrition for the increased population in case existing economy methods are preserved. Human population in Africa is on rapid increase thanks to better healthcare and existing traditionally large families. In such states as Cameroon the population doubled in recent two decades, especially in the rural areas. Unsustainable and uncontrolled hunting as well as decrease of forestry areas leads to shortage of bushmeat food supplies.
According to Wilkie et al., the normal population density which a bush is able to support in case traditional hunting is continued is 1 man per 1 square kilometer. However, current population density of the Congo basin (according to Wilkie) makes 99 men per 1 square kilometer or 5-20 persons per square kilometer according to Bushmeat A Wildlife Crisis in West and Central Africa and Around the World. In West Africa the population density makes 27-78 persons per square kilometer.
African governments attempt to resolve the problem of overpopulation by teaching the locals to cultivate corns and perform sustainable management of natural resources, however, these attempts are not always successful, mostly due to lack of organizational pattern, ineffective management and human ignorance. The most notable problem here is mosaic distribution of farmer lands resulting in further fragmentation of the bush and grave human influence on its ecosystem.
E. Huge problem of extreme poverty
The problem of poverty is the most important social cause of the bushmeat crisis and the main driving factor of the bushmeat trade. Poverty and destruction of environmental systems are strongly interrelated and interdependent through the system of complex links. Abject poverty results both from nutrition shortage and loss of human habitat. In this case the fate of the poorest people in Central Africa is hardly different from the fate of the apes as they both suffer from civilization penetrating into the wild.
Due to the mentioned interrelation the problem has to be resolved by a set of complex measures considering that better environment would mean better living conditions for the poor. However, this problem is aggravated by high human mobility, instable political environment and conflicts of interest related to illegal commercial use of natural resources. Additionally, recent experience shows that where people are dependent on bushmeat they are likely to resolve the problem of poverty by massive hunting, but not by application of new economic methods This makes the implementation of strategies aimed on poverty reduction complicated if at all possible.
IV. SOLUTIONS TO PONDER
A. Policy And Legislation
Bushmeat problem is a subject of both international and national legislation and policy. On the international plane bush wildlife fells under protection of Convention on Biological Diversity, signed, inter alia by Botswana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Cte dIvoire, Mozambique, Nigeria, Zimbabwe and other nations of Central and West Africa. Article 6 of the mentioned Convention provides an obligation to (a) Develop national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or programmes which shall reflect, inter alia, the measures set out in this Convention relevant to the Contracting Party concerned and (b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies.
The earlier Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife Flora and Fauna (CITES) established restrictions for such trade aimed on wildlife conservation, including obligation of the parties to establish inner legal restrictions for such trade (articles 3-6 of the Convention). The parties to the convention are all states of West and Central Africa. In 2000 the Central African parties to the CITES (including Cameroon, Gabon, CAR, Congo and Equatorial Guinea) established a sub-regional working group for management of protected wildlife areas and identified particular steps in the sphere of harmonization of legislation, enforcement of national wildlife protection policies, informational support of wildlife protection campaigns and sustainable natural resources management. In 2001, the parties set up measurable standards to monitor their progress. Currently the program is being implemented by the states-parties, including following legislative measures taken by the states
Republic of Congo. The Congolese law N48 .83 of 21 April 1983 determines guidelines for wildlife exploitation, granting of licenses and permissions for wildlife exploitations and wildlife protection, as well as sets up the list of offences against wildlife and corresponding sanctions.
Following the 2000 Conference Congo adopted a new Forestry Code, which notably expanded the powers of the national Forest Administration, as well as aggravated responsibility for forestry legislation violations. As of 2003 the Congolese parliament actively worked to pass new laws on forestry and wildlife, paying special attention to development of communications and informational strategies.
Republic of Cameroon. The new Cameroonian Forestry Code divided the forests of Cameroon into permanent protected forests and permanent forests in which human activities are permitted. The code additionally regulates use of hunting weapons and methods, providing decentralized forest management and protection exercised by the local communities.
Cameroonian government actively promotes European-sponsored wildlife protection programs (ECOFAC, APFT, PCGBC, FOFARI, CARPE, PRGIE, SNV, GEF, TREES). Most notably, The National Forestry Action Plan provided opportunities for broad reformation of national policies, increased official awareness and foreign assistance.
The Republic of Gabon. Gabon applies model similar to the one of Cameroon, including adoption of a new Forestry Code which contains classification of wild species living on the Gabonese territory, conditions of hunting and organization of synergetic events in the hunting areas, establishment of cooperation between rural hunters and urban meat traders and conditions for obtaining hunting permits and licenses.
The Republic of Equatorial Guinea. Bellos report gives special notice that Equatorial Guinea strives to implement regional wildlife protection policies beyond formal dedication, and, as one of the initiators of 2000 meeting, Equatorial Guinea started implementing policies similar to those developed in 2000, in its legislation already in the 1990s. This includes legislation on wildlife conservation, sustainable use of natural resources and forestry areas fragmentation and protection. National Forestry Development Fund exists in Equatorial Guinea since 1994, National Parks have been created by a decree of 1997, and protected forestry areas exist since 2000.
The Central Africa Republic. The state demonstrated its dedication to wildlife protection since 1984 when the Order N84-045 of 27 July 1984 set forth the basic principles of hunting activities. The law amended the provisions of Order N74-72 of 28 June 1974 concerning bushmeat trade. The modified legislation provides obligatory licensing of hunting activities, as well as reporting both by bushmeat hunters and bushmeat traders. Recent ECOFAC project offered further amendments, however, these have not been yet effectively implemented.
Currently, illegal bushmeat hunting and trading became a matter of concern far beyond African states. European governments implement policies aimed to prevent illegal bushmeat import into the European Union. In 2002 the European Parliament unanimously passed a resolution condemning bushmeat trade. The World Bank and the European Union cooperate with African States in their efforts to prevent illegal bushmeat hunting. Such cooperation includes scientific and technical support like creation of working groups working to increase public awareness of the problem both in Africa and worldwide.
B. Land Use Considerations.
The abovementioned policies can be viewed as a first step towards development of effective natural resources management and wildlife protection policy. Currently African nations implemented only some fire-extinguishing measures like certification and control over bushmeat hunting and prohibition of illegal bushmeat trade. Only Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea currently introduced long-term legislative measures aimed on creation of sustainable land use and protection areas like national parks and protected zones (like Equatorial Guinea) or development of non-exhausting and nature-friendly framing and logging (like Cameroon). It should thus be expected that other African nations would copy Cameroonian and Guinean experience, including establishment of forestry administrations and classification of lands.
Cameroon offers a prospection for further development of lands management in Africa. Alternatives to Slash and Burn (ASL) program is currently applied in Southern Cameroon aimed to study the impact of primitive exhaustive methods of farming on the quality of land and classify agricultural lands based on the program findings. Application of similar programs in other African countries could be effective for implementation of more effective and less exhaustive farming methods which would enable solving nutrition problems and thus reduce the dependency of the locals on bushmeat.
C. Awareness And Education.
As shown above, the bushmeat crisis is largely a result of poor awareness of rural African people of the problem and expected consequences. Thus, promotion of education and awareness is likely to be effective in combating bushmeat crisis. As long as the bushmeat crisis is a complex problem, it requires complex informational and educational campaigning in all fields from population control to propaganda against illegal hunting.
Education has been identified as one of the primary means to combat illegal bushmeat trade by the Food and Agricultural Organization in 2002. Among existing notable educational programs are
- CERCOPAN project (Nigeria) is designed for students. The project includes educational rally, traditional dance festival, banner competition
- Bushmeat Crisis Discussion Group (Cameroon). The purpose of the project is to encourage wildlife conservation by educating the future generations of the Africans and to increase general awareness of the bushmeat crisis in the African society through establishment of wildlife clubs in secondary schools, organization of field tours and other awareness activities.
- Forests Partners International (Liberia). The program is implemented by a group of officers educating people in areas around Sapo National Park. Attention is drawn to sustainable use of wildlife resources and explanation of threats caused by uncontrolled hunting.
Several educational programs are performed by major western zoos in cooperation with the African zoos. Such projects are designed both for African and Western audience. The latter is becoming increasingly aware of the bushmeat crisis, including through global youth cooperation projects. Thus, the Jane Goodall Institute supports the Roots and Shoots youth project dealing, among other issues with the bushmeat crisis in the programs like Tchimpounga Youth Campaign.
D. Public Private Initiatives.
Educational projects are designed for long-term perspective to make African societies involved into solution of the bushmeat problem both on public and private planes. The public level includes national governments, local communities and commercial companies, the private level includes NGOs and individuals.
The basic task of the states is to pass effective wildlife protection legislation including delimitation of forest areas and defining protected areas and areas of free hunting, hiring personnel for monitoring and prevention of illegal bushmeat hunting, licensing hunting and sale of hunting ammunition, prevention of commercial trade with illegal bushmeat, research for alternative sources of proteins, care of sustainable logging, development of nature-friendly infrastructure projects, promotion of nation-wide research of wildlife state and protection prospective, promotion of environmental education and awareness.
The initiatives of local communities may include sustainable use of land, promotion of local nature protection systems, environmental education on local level, development of alternative sources of living for the local communities, combating customary and religious practices of hunting endangered species, monitoring and prevention of bushmeat trade within the community.
On the part of the private companies one should expect teaching and training employees to apply nature protection practices, contribution to sustainable nature resources management (for example, planting trees by the logging companies), monitoring and prevention of bushmeat hunting in the areas of their interest and by their employees, ensuring that the companys equipment and transport is not applied for bushmeat hunting.
Non-government organizations and individuals can contribute to resolution of the bushmeat crisis by adhering to governmental regulations and policies on biodiversity conservation, non-government research and monitoring, collaborating with the government and local communities in solving the crisis, promotion of general awareness and knowledge, research and suggestion og alternative protein sources, arranging teaching and training within local communities. The additional task for the NGOs shall be arranging of informational exchange between nations facing the bushmeat crisis. The first step towards such general non-government cooperation is the alliance formed by several international NGOs establishing a working group on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Currently the alliance concentrates on enforcement of existing regulations, however, they may actively contribute to development of new regulations and policies in the future.
E. Food Security And Livelihoods.
The ultimate resolution of the bushmeat crisis is possible only in case its primary cause is eliminated, namely the critical dependency of the local livelihoods on animal proteins acquired from bushmeat (see Sections I and II of the present paper). Neither of the above measures is likely to be effective without resolution of this underlying problem. Thus, the African governments striving to eliminate the bushmeat problem will have to offer alternative methods of agricultural production and alternative sources of animal proteins.
Apparently, the overcoming of the food crisis would require the governments and the publicity to recognize two basic facts 1. The bushmeat is an unreliable, unstable and unsecure source of nutrition 2. There are biological limits of the environmental system, including limits of food which can be provided by a particular territory and limits of population which is able to maintain its living on a particular territory.
As has been mentioned previously in this paper, alternative sources of nutrition do exist, including agricultural crops, fish and household animals. The best solution for the African nations would be complex development of their agricultural sectors in order to ensure availability of replaceable protein sources. Another solution is overcoming isolation of separated rural communities and arranging cooperation between regions and internationally. This would enable fast delivery of food in case of short-term lack of nutrition products in a particular community (for example in the case of draught) thus increasing their food supply security and discouraging the locals from viewing the bush as a source of cheap and available meat.
V. CONCLUSIONS
It can be asserted that the first and the most important step towards resolution of the bushmeat crisis is already made. African nations and the entire mankind has acknowledged the problem and the need to combat it. Notable measures are already taken, including working out of international and national legal framework and development of long-term anti-crisis policies. Nations like Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea proved to be successful in enforcement of legislative measures directed against the crisis. However, the performed actions enabled to mitigate the immediate threats only. Solid performance in combating the bushmeat crisis has yet to be achieved.
In the midterm perspective, anti-crisis measures have to be targeted at resolution of general nutrition problems in Central Africa. Finding alternative sustainable source of protein and providing food supplies security for the rural livelihoods would enable to eliminate the underlying cause of the crisis.
The long-term perspective should be directed at achievement of two purposes 1. Sustainable nature resources management, including logging and commercial hunting 2. education of the African people in issues concerning wildlife protection and sustainable natural resources management in general and threats associated with bushmeat in particular. With consideration of this prospective, an ultimate resolution of the bushmeat crisis appears to be a matter of two or three decades.
